Under Xi Jinping, nationalist right-wing rhetoric drives China’s leftist and socialist state ideology. Konrad Szatters describes how elements of this rhetoric echo the far-right populist narratives in numerous European countries
Under Xi’s leadership, China has significantly reshaped its global identity. While the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) remains committed to socialist ideals, party officials' rhetoric reveals a significant right-wing ideological shift.
The first pillar of this shift is the concept of 'great rejuvenation of the Chinese nation' 中华民族伟大复兴 (zhōnghuá mínzú wěidà fùxīng). This concept, introduced in 2002, but revived by Xi, realises the 'Chinese dream' 中国梦 (zhōngguó mèng), which is 'about pursuing strength of the country... and the happiness of the people'.
Xi often talks about the 'great rejuvenation', presenting it as 'the greatest dream of the Chinese nation since modern times'. He claims it could finally dispel the 'century of humiliation' and return China to its rightful place as global superpower. Xi also talks up China’s 'greatness' and its contributions to the progress of over 5,000 years of human civilisation. In Xi’s eyes, China’s future is bright. The nation must unite under CCP rule and citizens strive to strengthen their country amid 'the forest of the nations'.
China now positions itself as having triumphed, through collective national resilience, over foreign humiliation and oppression
Xi intends these narratives to stir nationalist sentiments; indeed, they mark a stark departure from the internationalist 'five principles of peaceful coexistence' 和平共处五项原则 (hépíng gòngchǔ wǔ xiàng yuánzé) rhetoric initially propagated by the CCP. China is framing its rise as a return to the country's rightful historical greatness. In so doing, it positions itself as having triumphed, through collective national resilience, over foreign humiliation and oppression.
The most visible themes in China’s right-wing narratives are national superiority, traditionalism, and anti-foreign sentiment. Whether in relation to war in Ukraine, the Covid-19 pandemic, or diplomacy with the Global South, Chinese official narratives portray the country as having a governance model superior to Western democracies, especially the US. Xi and his acolytes transformed this idea into the much-repeated 'rising East and declining West' 东升西降 (dōng shēng xī jiàng). In their speeches, this slogan accompanies the ideas of the 'great rejuvenation' and 'Chinese dream'. Together, they form a picture of a nation superior to others that demands constant respect.
Under Mao, China's government was deeply critical of its traditional philosophies. Today, Xi and the CCP embrace them
Traditionalism is another cornerstone of China’s ideological shift under Xi. Under Mao, China's government was highly critical of its traditional culture and philosophies, such as Confucianism. Today, however, Xi and the CCP embrace them. The party uses traditional philosophies to justify its highly centralised authoritarian rule, and to promote conservative values and social roles. This traditionalist turn has helped China distinguish its ideology from Western liberalism, which it portrays as overly individualised, morally decayed, and eroding social cohesion. Instead, China emphasises family values, social unity, and collective responsibility for its future success.
Anti-foreign sentiment is the last striking theme in China’s nationalist rhetoric. Such sentiment is nothing new, having first appeared after the nineteenth-century Opium Wars between imperial Qing China and western powers. Nonetheless, after Xi dropped Deng Xiaoping’s ‘lay low’ attitude and put China on more assertive tracks, anti-foreign sentiment began its renaissance. This sentiment, along with the themes of national superiority and traditionalism, frequently blend to form the backbone of China’s right-wing nationalist discourse.
One topic looms over these three themes: Taiwan. For decades now, Taiwan has been a self-governing island that considers itself independent. Beijing, on the other hand, views it as a breakaway province.
China's 'great rejuvenation' cannot happen until reunification with Taiwan finally ends the 'century of humiliation', and restores China's global greatness
Xi exploits the Taiwan question to perpetuate China’s nationalist discourse and ambitions. First, he portrays Taiwan as being backed and supported by China’s enemies. These enemies include the United States, the only superpower preventing China from conquering the island and 'reuniting the motherland'. Second, the Taiwan question in Chinese rhetoric unites Chinese citizens around a common objective: 'the great rejuvenation of the Chinese nation'. That cannot and will not happen without China getting involved in Taiwan. Third, the 'promise' of reunification with Taiwan could finally end the ‘century of humiliation’ and restore China’s global greatness.
China’s interesting mix of socialist values with nationalist right-wing rhetoric is evidence of the country's ideological transformation over the past decade. By embracing notions of national rejuvenation, traditionalism, anti-foreign sentiment, and national and cultural superiority, China has changed its global strategy and redefined the rules of the game yet again.
Much of this shift is taking place within China. Its ideological resonance, however, could extend beyond the country’s borders, particularly as China seeks to expand its influence in the Global South, and to challenge Western dominance. In the foreseeable future, this rapid ideological transformation may have a deeper direct influence on Chinese foreign policy, especially concerning Taiwan and the US. It may also resonate with other authoritarian regimes across the globe.
The world has had plenty of time to get used to 'socialism with Chinese characteristics'. But is the international community ready for 'nationalism with Chinese characteristics?'
